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As increasing numbers of research papers in applied linguistics, language learning, and assessment use discourse analysis techniques to assess accuracy in performance, it is timely to examine at a detailed level the wide variety of measures employed. Ideally, measures need to capture accuracy in as valid and reliable a way as possible, but this has proved elusive. In this article, we systematically review the variety of different measures in used in these fields, both global and local, before presenting a more finely tuned weighted clause ratio measure which classifies errors at different levels, that is, those that seriously impede communication, those that impair communication to some degree, and those that do not impair communication at all. The problem of reliably identifying these levels is discussed, followed by an analysis of samples from written and spoken second language performance data. This new measure, grounded in a comprehensive review of prior practice in the field, has the advantages of being relatively easy to use, measuring accuracy rather than error, and evaluating smaller increases in improved performance than have previously been possible.

Phonological awareness is a skill which is crucial in learning to read. In this paper, we report on the challenges encountered while developing a digital application (app) for teaching phonological awareness and early literacy skills in Dhuwaya. Dhuwaya is a Yolŋu language variety spoken in Yirrkala and surrounding areas in East Arnhem Land. Dhuwaya is the first language of the children who attend a bilingual school in which Dhuwaya and English are the languages of instruction. Dhuwaya and English have different phonemic inventories and different alphabets. The Dhuwaya alphabet is based on Roman alphabet symbols and has 31 graphemes (compared to 26 in English). The app was designed to teach children how to segment and blend syllables and phonemes and to identify common words as well as suffixes used in the language. However, the development was not straightforward, and the impact of the linguistic, cultural and educational challenges could not have been predicted. Amongst these was the inherent variation in the language, including glottal stops, the pronunciation of stops, the focus on syllables as a decoding strategy for literacy development and challenges of finding one-syllable words such as those initially used with English-speaking children. Another challenge was identifying culturally appropriate images which the children could relate to and which were not copyrighted. In this paper, we discuss these plus a range of other issues that emerged, identifying how these problems were addressed and resolved by the interdisciplinary and intercultural team.

Performance on integrated tasks requires candidates to engage skills and strategies beyond language proficiency alone, in ways that can be difficult to define and measure for testing purposes. While it has been widely recognised that stimulus materials impact test performance, our understanding of the way in which test takers make use of these materials in their responses, particularly in the context of listening-speaking tasks, remains predominantly intuitive. Recent studies have highlighted the problems associated with content-related aspects of task fulfilment on integrated tasks, but little attempt has been made to operationalise the way in which content from the input material is integrated into speaking performances. Using discourse data from a trial administration of a pilot for an Oxford English language test, this paper investigates how test takers integrate stimulus materials into their speaking performances on an integrated listening-then-speaking summary task, whether these behaviours are reflected in the relevant rating scale and, by implication, whether the test scores assigned according to this scale reflect real differences in the quality of oral performances. An innovative discourse analytic approach was developed to analyse content-related aspects of performance in order to determine if such aspects represent an appropriate measure of the speaking ability construct. Results showed that the measures devised, such as the number of key points included from the input text, and the accuracy with which information was reproduced or reformulated, effectively distinguished participants according to their level of speaking proficiency. The study's findings support the use of this particular task-type and the appropriateness of the associated rating scale as a measure of speaking proficiency, as well as the utility of the devised discourse-based measures for the validation of integrated tasks in other assessment contexts. [Author abstract]

The literature on corrective feedback (CF) that second language writers receive in response to their grammatical and lexical errors is plagued by controversies and conflicting findings about the merits of feedback. Although more recent studies suggest that CF is valuable (e.g., Bitchener, 2008; Sheen, 2007), it is still not clear whether direct or indirect feedback is the most effective, or why. This study explored the efficacy of two different forms of CF. The investigation focused on the nature of the learners' engagement with the feedback received to gain a better understanding of why some feedback is taken up and retained and some is not. The study was composed of three sessions. In session 1, learners worked in pairs to compose a text based on a graphic prompt. Feedback was provided either in the form of reformulations (direct feedback) or editing symbols (indirect feedback). In session 2 (day 5), the learners reviewed the feedback they received and rewrote their text. All pair talk was audio-recorded. In session 3 (day 28), each of the learners composed a text individually using the same prompt as in session 1. The texts produced by the pairs after feedback were analyzed for evidence of uptake of the feedback given and texts produced individually in session 3 for evidence of retention. The learners' transcribed pair talk proved a very rich source of data that showed not only how learners processed the feedback received but also their attitudes toward the feedback and their beliefs about language conventions and use. Closer analysis of four case study pairs suggests that uptake and retention may be affected by a host of linguistic and affective factors, including the type of errors the learners make in their writing and, more importantly, learners' attitudes, beliefs, and goals. The findings suggest that, although often ignored in research on CF, these affective factors play an important role in uptake and retention of feedback.

This text explores the experiences of indigenous children and young adults around the world as they navigate the formal education system and wider society. Profiling a range of different communities and sociolinguistic contexts, this book examines the language ecologies of their local communities, schools and wider society and the approaches taken by these communities to maintain children's home languages. The authors examine such complex themes as curriculum, translanguaging, contact languages and language use as cultural practice. In doing so, this edited collection acts as a first step towards developing solutions which address the complexity of the issues facing these children and young people.

The assessment of oral language is now quite commonly done in pairs or groups, and there is a growing body of research which investigates the related. Writing generally tends to be thought of as an individual activity, although a small number of studies have documented the advantages of collaboration in writing in the second language classroom. Particularly in university contexts, group or pair assignments are widely used in many disciplines. In addition, collaborative writing could be used in second language classroom assessment contexts as formative assessment. However, research which compares texts produced by learners collaboratively to texts produced individually, and the implications of this for assessment practices, is rare. This study is a first step in the investigation of using collaborative writing in second language contexts and comparing the performance of two groups of second language learners: one group worked individually, and the other group worked in pairs. When writing in pairs, each pair produced a single text. All participants completed one writing task: an argumentative essay. The performances of the individuals (N = 48) and the pairs (N = 48) were compared on detailed discourse analytic measures of fluency, complexity and accuracy. This comparison revealed that collaboration impacted positively on accuracy, but did not affect fluency and complexity. A detailed analysis of the pair transcripts recorded during the writing activity provides insights into the ways in which pairs work together, and the foci of their endeavour. The implications of these findings for in-class assessment of second language writing are discussed. [Author abstract]

This study aimed to investigate the effects of contextual predictability on orthographic and phonological activation during Chinese sentence reading by Cantonese-speaking readers using the error disruption paradigm. Participants’ eye fixations and pupil sizes were recorded while they silently read Chinese sentences containing homophonic, orthographic, and unrelated errors. Sentences had varying amounts of contextual information leading up to target words such that some targets were more predictable than others. Results of the fixation time analysis indicated that orthographic effects were significant in first fixation and gaze duration, while phonological effects emerged later in total reading time. However, interactions between predictability and the homophonic condition were found in gaze duration. These results suggest that, while Cantonese readers activate word meanings primarily through orthography in early processing, early phonological activation can occur when facilitated by semantics in high-constraint sentence contexts. Analysis of pupillary response measurements revealed that participants’ pupil sizes became larger when they read words containing orthographic errors, suggesting that orthographic error recovery processes significantly increase cognitive load.

According to this view, individual test taker characteristics such as age, gender, cultural background, L1 accent, L2 proficiency level, and so forth could be considered integral elements of communicative competence, and, as such, defined within the construct of interactional competence and operationalized within the paired speaking test. [...]studies in this special issue raise an interesting question over just how far their findings can be generalized beyond the immediate and relatively small-scale world of the experimental study to the wider world of language testing practice and practitioners. [...]it is particularly gratifying to be able to bring to the attention of the wider language testing community research undertaken by those who are relatively new to the field and who will undoubtedly be the ones to take forward this important area of research and development in future years. [...]language interaction: current perspectives and future trends.

Native language use in an English as a second language context is investigated in a pilot study of pairs of university English as a second language students having a shared native language, Indonesian or Chinese (N = 3 dyads each), during a text reconstruction task & a joint composition task. Native language use by each pair was calculated as a % of total language use & segmented into episodes coded for function. Results showed that only 33% of Ss made more than minimal use of their native language; these Ss used it in the joint composition task primarily for task management & clarification, & in the reconstruction task mainly to discuss vocabulary & meaning. In interviews, Ss indicated that their native language could be useful, particularly in activities with a focus on meaning. 1 Table, 1 Appendix, 8 References. J. Hitchcock

This article analyses the significance of the highly anticipated trial of Charles Taylor at The Hague which, after a false start in 2007, resumed in early January 2008. Starting with the historical background, the article assesses the major jurisprudential issues which are likely to be considered during the course of the trial and to fit the case within the broader context of other developments both within the Special Court of Sierra Leone and other international tribunals. The funding problems that have beset the court and issues such as the handling of witnesses are also considered. The final outcome of the trial is as yet uncertain but it may suggest ways forward in terms of bringing greater accountability into the field of international criminal law. Ultimately, both retributive and restorative justice must play their part in ending the impunity of war criminals, whatever their status in society.